This Thanksgiving I have thinking about the impact that music has had on this holiday: specifically, what might have been performed during the 1620s in the New World. Sources that I have encountered about this topic, like from Kylie Harwell. demonstrate examples from both the Wampanoag Indians and Pilgrims. In terms of music from the Wampanoag, Harwell discusses the significance of the water drum, which was used primarily for ceremonial purposes. This does not suggest, however, that the water drum is strictly a Wampanoag instrument, as different tribes across the United States have also used it. Those looking for details on the overall construction of a water drum should check out this video. It provides a step-by-step tutorial for how to build a Woodland Indian water drum: so named because the water inside the drum determines the timbre and pitch when struck.

There are also extant examples of psalmody brought over from England to the New World. Harwell stresses the importance of the Psalter by Henry Ainsworth from 1612. Dr. Paul Jehle confirms this information via research from the Plymouth Rock Foundation. Jehle notes that, even though the Pilgrims sang these English translations of Biblical Psalms in the New World, Ainsworth originally used the Psalter while living in Amsterdam. One can find examples of psalmody by Ainsworth like in this video. Notice that the presentation of the score features only the melody and text with no added instrumentation. Jehle describes this music, written in the C clef, as a form of resistance against the strict nature of the Church of England. Of course, he also says that the Pilgrims did perform musical instruments and other types of songs outside of church services. Here are some photographs of when I visited Plymouth, MA several years ago, including a snapshot of the "Plymouth Rock."

Today, as we celebrate the Day of the Musician, I would like to congratulate all my musician friends, performers, and collaborators. This year has been especially challenging for everyone, but your contributions to the arts makes all the difference in the world and has motivated people to  keep going. May you all continue to work tirelessly in your efforts to create and inspire current and future generations of people. 

As part of Native American Heritage Month, I would like to devote time in this post to briefly exploring the significance of Native American composers of classical music. As many might recall I have already talked the myriad issues associated with classical music and cultural stereotyping. This has also, unfortunately, been the case for Native American culture. The goal of this post, though, is to demonstrate how American Indian composers approach classical genres while retaining parts of their culture through proper representation.

The first and most important aspect to note is that “Native American” or “American Indian” denotes multiple tribes across the U.S. and should not be perceived in the classical world (or any genre for that matter) as a single group. As Gail Wein notes in her research, the plethora of Native American composers—many of whom either lived on reservations or are of Native American descent—reflect that diversity. They draw inspiration from folktales and customs and incorporate these ideas within classical music genres, like chamber pieces, solo works and symphonies, and choral pieces. Wein cites Louis  Ballard (Quapaw) (1931-2007) as one the first Native American composers to advocate for proper cultural  representation through education. He is best remembered for his pieces Why the duck has a short tail (1967) for narrator and orchestra, as well as his Incident at Wounded Knee (1974) for chamber orchestra. Although audio recordings of music by Ballard are surprisingly difficult to locate (at least, through social media and music streaming services), listeners can still access a few of his pieces, like his Four American Indian Piano Preludes (1963)    

Of course, contemporary Native American composers are aware of the dangers associated with cultural misinterpretation through performance practice in classical music. Jerod Impichchiaachaaha’ Tate (Chickisaw) once spoke about this problem in an interview with the American Composers Forum. He describes the challenge for performing Native American  classical music stems from avoiding stereotypical sounds. As a possible solution, Tate suggests drawing inspiration from Impressionistic music, citing Ravel and Debussy as examples because of their emphasis on musical coloration.    

This year has proven especially difficult for the arts: specifically, for musicians, established institutions, and contemporary composers. Due to the onslaught of the Coronavirus pandemic since March, the music world has had to adapt to the situation as best as possible. This has meant conducting virtual music conferences and concerts online so that everyone around the world can participate and observe the events. In certain cases, the severity of COVID-19 has also led some paying institutions, like the Metropolitan Opera, to present previously recorded broadcasts online to the public for free. Other events that I have observed and attended this year include performances from the Spoleto Festival USA and the Research on Contemporary Composition (ROCC) conference from the University of North Georgia Music Department. Besides demonstrating the direction in which classical music is going in the twenty-first century, that event also highlights the procedures and precautions that composers and musicians today can take to maintain productivity in this era of uncertainty.

I have already talked about how the sociopolitical situations in 2020 (and part of the 2010s for that matter), have helped to provide inspiration for new pieces. In this post, I concentrate on what composers and performers can or should do to stay active in their field despite restrictions. The first, and perhaps most important, obstacle to overcome is learning to work remotely in a virtual setting. This means collaborating and communicating with performers or music commissioners from home via social networking technology, video conferencing, and e-mail. Rehearsals and performances are restricted to remote locations, which has enabled composers and performers to (re)consider and adapt to performance spaces. It also (theoretically) eliminates the possibility of physical travel because the composer is now able to work with performers from other states, cities, or countries without having to leave home. Working virtually on a music project also reinforces the importance of Internet etiquette when it comes to collaboration and commission opportunities. Those wanting more details about that specific topic should check out my post from July 2018.
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I have also witnessed virtual music performances in 2020 where certain musicians or ensembles have had to play under extreme conditions, I refer to performing music in public while wearing masks and applying Social Distancing protocols out of health concerns and safety precautions to prevent the spread of COVID-19. Of course, not all musicians agree with these regulations, openly expressing personal frustration. Still, this opposition in the music world represents but a small percentage of people. The few performance spaces that have reopened in the midst of the virus still implement safety procedures (like temperature checks and hand sanitizing stations) to keep both performers and audiences safe. Working under these conditions, while practicable, can still prove to be a risky decision. From my perspective as a composer, I find that it is best to work and collaborate from home and usually try to avoid face to face interactions unless it is required. 

Earlier this month, I discussed the necessity for classical music to diversify its performance repertoire to include composers from all over the world, with specific focus on Latin America. I also hinted that, given the tumultuous and unpredictable year that is 2020, classical music and its associated institutions (concert halls, opera houses and --unfortunately-- some areas of academia) have faced backlash for cultural exclusivity. While these aspects still hold true to some degree, the contemporary classical music scene is trying to change that perception by becoming more inclusive and self-aware about modern global issues. Contemporary classical music today demonstrates the diversity of styles that apply both acoustic and electronic elements: sometimes with visual media to accompany performances. It also does not have to conform to one subgenre. Based on what I have encountered, composers today can apply tonality, atonality, and avante garde extended performance techniques how they see fit.

It is understood that classical music has a bad historical reputation for espousing ethnocentrism.  However, most contemporary composers are also keenly aware of the pressing and dire events that have transpired over the past few years:  COVID-19, climate change and social justice through anti-racism to name a few. Issues like these have served as inspiration for new works and  important thematic materials that engage the audience by addressing current situations. These materials also provide important programmatic contexts for listeners and viewers because that helps them to understand the music. I also consider some of my works from 2020 as part of this important moment ofof creativity. When the COVID-19 pandemic began infecting the United States in March, for example, I started using that time to write acoustic and electronic works from home: pieces that candidly explored the fear and isolation associated with the effects of the virus and living in self-quarantine.
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That last point brings me to other key questions, which I will address in a later post. How have contemporary composers managed their workflow by creating new pieces in these uncertain times of crises? Given the restrictions imposed by COVID-19 and Social Distancing, how do composers and performers maintain contact in a virtual setting through advancements in technology? How can composers today maintain productivity and engage their audiences if physical concert venues (for the most part) have been closed for months?  

This post will briefly discuss representation and expanding the classical music performance repertoire to include Latin American and Caribbean composers. It is necessary for me to write about this, considering that debates have emerged in the past few years (particularly, this year) concerning the problematic nature of the classical music genre. Many have stressed its lack of diversity by focusing too much on dead European and American composers, to frequent instances of cultural appropriation and racism. As a contemporary classical composer of Puerto Rican descent, I agree with such complaints and realize that concert halls and operas houses must do more to clean up this negative image and treat music by Latin American and Caribbean composers (and other marginalized groups) as more than just a novelty.

I consider this blog post as an addendum to my previous discussion about audio recording preservation. Like that post, I will offer digital online resources that people can use to locate information about Latin American and Caribbean music. With that said, let me begin by referring once again to one of the resources that I talked about last week: the “Audio Recordings” section of the Archivo Virtual Instituto de Cultura Puertorriqueña (ICP). This audio archive features digitized recordings of music by Puerto Rican composers from the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The segment on nineteenth-century classical music concentrates on danzas from the Romantic era by Manuel Gregorio Tavárez (1843-1883), Juan Morel Campos (1857-1896), and many others. The section dedicated to twentieth-century Puerto Rican classical music features recordings of works by composers like Hector Campos Parsi (1922-1998), Rafael Aponte Ledée (b. 1937), and Ernesto Cordero (b. 1946).

This is not to say that this archive is without problems. I mentioned last week that it does not contain contemporary popular music from the twenty-first century. Perhaps, the same can be said about its selection of contemporary classical music. To my knowledge, I was unable to locate mainland U.S.-based composers from the Puerto Rican diaspora, as well as Afro-Puerto Rican, female, and LGBTQIA composers. In this era, proper representation from these groups is important now more than ever.

In terms of classical music ensembles, the Unitas Ensemble focuses specifically on promoting classical music by Latin American and Caribbean composers. Based in Boston and directed by Lina Gonzalez-Granados, this group specializes in performing pieces by both deceased and living composers from international and stateside Latin American and Hispanophone Caribbean communities. The ensemble also commissions new pieces by Latin American and Caribbean composers to expand and enhance the classical music repertoire. Many of their performances can be accessed through social media.

While this blog post functions mainly to help musicians based in the United States in terms of Latin American  musical representation, I am aware that some Latin American composers  have encountered backlash for their work. Miguel del Águila (the current Composer in Residence for the Orchestra of the Americas) notes that people like the Argentine tango composer Astor Piazolla (1921-1992) were often shunned in their home country for experimenting too much with traditional or popular music genres, while this same experimentation has often been appreciated elsewhere (see latest program from Unitas Ensemble). The problem of underrepresentation, then, must not be perceived as strictly U.S.-centric, but global. In other words, both geographical regions must do their part to accurately and fairly demonstrate works from past and present Latin American composers.

Versión Español:
Hoy en el blog, nos concentraremos en los archivos de audio y otros recursos que actualmente están disponible en línea con materiales sobre América Latina, el Caribe, y las comunidades estadounidenses. Específicamente, hablo de archivos selectos que las personas pueden tener acceso fácilmente desde su casa: para trabajos independientes de investigación, o por curiosidad. Aunque se pueden conseguir colecciones para trabajos académicos en línea, algunos de ellos tienen listas de catálogo y requieren que las personas obtengan acceso físico.

La Biblioteca de Congreso es un buen punto de referencia para comenzar a buscar archivos virtuales de audio relacionado con América Latina y el Caribe: especialmente, las áreas en los E.E.U.U. Esta institución investigativa contiene versiones digitales de grabaciones musicales y de discursos etnográficos. Por ejemplo, una selección del W.P.A. California Folk Music Project, dirigida por la etnomusicóloga Sydney Robertson Cowell (1903-1995), contiene grabaciones de la comunidad puertorriqueña en California en el 1939. Sin embargo, colecciones como estas deben ser usadas cautelosamente, porque las restricciones especificas bajo la sección de “Los derechos y acceso.” La Biblioteca de Congreso advierte a las personas que deben usar los materiales en sus colecciones para trabajos académicos y que otros propósitos (fuera de la política de “Uso justo” en los Estados Unidos) usualmente requieren permiso de los derechos del autor.

Otros recursos de gran valor en relación a las grabaciones latinoamericanas y caribeñas que son digitalizadas son las “Grabaciones” en el Archivo Virtual del Instituto de Cultura Puertorriqueña (ICP), y otro recurso es la Colección Gladys Palmera. Ambos archivos están actualmente disponibles al público con ejemplos accesibles de grabaciones de distintos géneros: desde música clásica, hasta la música popular. Pero, hay algunas diferencias importantes entre los dos archivos. El Archivo Virtual Instituto de Cultura Puertorriqueña se concentra en las grabaciones hechas específicamente en Puerto Rico bajo la etiqueta del ICP. Por otro lado, La Colección Gladys Palmera representa parte de una grande colección privada (basada en España) de discos sobre la música de América Latina y del Caribe acumulado por mas de tres décadas. Cinco mil grabaciones de cincuenta mil grabaciones de audio están disponibles en línea, con listas de canciones y piezas musicales para escuchar. La música popular en estas colecciones muestra algunos géneros del siglo xx: como música folclórica, mambo cubano, música afrolatino, y el rock en español.
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¿Y que de los géneros musicales mas recientes de las últimas décadas del siglo xx hasta hoy? Hay muchos músicos y agrupaciones musicales internacionales y del E.E.U.U. (además de Residente, Bad Bunny, y otros nombres mas conocidos por el público) que están representados en plataformas como Bandcamp. Basado en Bandcamp, la promoción de música latina que ofrecen es un material diverso donde incluyen gran diversidad de géneros que remueven barreras de estereotipo en estos tiempos.   

English Version
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Today’s blog will concentrate on audio archives and other related resources currently available online with materials about Latin America, the Caribbean, and their stateside communities. More specifically, I discuss select archives that people can easily access from their home: either for independent academic research, or out of curiosity. I mention that last part because, while there are academic research collections online, some of them contain lists and require physical travel to obtain access.

The Library of Congress serves as a good starting point for virtual audio archives related to Latin America and the Hispanophone Caribbean: especially stateside areas in the U.S. It contains digitized versions of recorded music and speech via ethnographic field recordings. For example, a sample selection from the W.P.A. California Folk Music Project, led by ethnomusicologist Sydney Robertson Cowell (1903-1995), features musical field recordings from the Puerto Rican community in California from 1939. Collections such as this must be treated with caution due to specific restrictions in the “Rights and Access” section. The LOC advises people to use the materials in this and other collections for academic research and that other applications (besides “Fair Use”) usually require permission from the copyright holder.

Other valuable resources pertaining to digitized audio recordings related to Latin America and the Caribbean include the “Audio Recordings” section of the Archivo Virtual del Instituto de Cultura Puertorriqueña (Virtual Archive of the Institute of Puerto Rican Culture) and the Colección Gladys Palmera (Gladys Palmera Collection). Both archives are currently available to the public with accessible samples of audio recordings of music and speech spanning different genres: from classical, to popular. There are several key differences, however. The  Archivo Virtual Instituto de Cultura Puertorriqueña focuses on audio recordings strictly from Puerto Rico made under the ICP record label. On the other end, the Colección Glady Palmera represents part of a large private collection (based in Spain) of Latin American and Caribbean records collected over three decades. Five thousand of the fifty-thousand audio recordings are listed online, some of them compiled in playlists for the public to hear. The popular music presented in both collections demonstrate several genres from the twentieth century: from folk music, to Cuban mambo and Afro-Latinx music, to rock in Spanish.

What about the newer popular music genres from the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries? There are many international and stateside Latin American and Caribbean artists (besides Residente, Bad Bunny, and other familiar names) who are represented on platforms like Bandcamp. Based on Bandcamp, the promotion of Latin music offers material that includes a grand diversity of genres that remove the barriers of stereotyping in these times.

En el blog anterior, hable de la radio en Puerto Rico y en Argentina y el impacto e importancia que tuvo en la sociedad y la política. Hoy, continuamos con otro segmento de mi investigación[1] enfocándonos en la importancia de la tecnología de las grabaciones en estas regiones: específicamente, el fonógrafo y el gramófono. Hablo de como los músicos de Puerto Rico y Argentina (incluyendo las comunidades de puertorriqueños en Nueva York) usaban estas formas de tecnología para promover sus culturas y abarcar audiencias globales. Además, cubrimos como esta tecnología de la radio y grabaciones ayudo a establecer conexiones musicales y culturales entre Puerto Rico y Argentina, a pesar de sus diferencias geográficas.


[1] Anthony L. Sánchez Crúz, El jibaro y el gaucho unidos en la música y canción (Vancouver, BC: Ditrie Marie Bowie, 2018).    

​In the last blog post, I discussed the impact of radio in Puerto Rico, noting its significance in both society and politics. Today, I continue with another passage from my investigation[1] by focusing on the importance of early audio recording technology in these regions: specifically, the phonograph and gramophone. I explain how Argentine and Puerto Rican musicians (including the  stateside Puerto Rican communities like New York City) used these recording technologies to  promote their cultures and reach a global audience. Additionally, I mention how these recording technologies, along with radio, helped to establish musical and cultural connections between Puerto Rico and Argentina despite geographical differences.


[1] Anthony L. Sánchez Crúz, The Jibaro and the Gaucho United in Music and Song (Vancouver, BC: Ditrie Marie Bowie, 2018, 2019).

Versión Español:
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​La creación y expansión de la música fue posible gracias a los elementos de difusión global con nuevas ideas y un renacimiento tecnológico. Esto sucede cuando aparatos de difusión aparecen en la vida cotidiana en secuencia de uno o dos años de diferencia, trayendo cada uno mejor tecnología que la anterior. En 1877, Thomas Edison creo el fonógrafo, que usó cilindros de cera para grabar dictaciones y después música. Con la implementación de cilindros en la Argentina en los 1890s, los establecimientos ofrecían distintas selecciones de piezas liricas, canciones patriotas y música de payadores. [1]

El gramófono fue creado en 1888 por Emil Berliner. Esta invención se impuso sobre el cilindro, utilizando discos planos en vez de los cilindros de cera. Ya para el 1894, se lanzaron los primeros discos. Pero, como fue en todas partes del mundo, los cilindros y discos coexistieron hasta que las maquinas reproductoras quedaron obsoletas y desaparecidas del mercado. Además, fue lógico que nueva tecnología empujara a la vieja. Las ventajas que el disco tenía era mayor capacidad de reproducción, según fue evolucionando. Se podía incluir más segundos, y más tarde se podían tener dos grabaciones: una a cada lado de la placa.[2]

Comenzaron a surgir las compañías de grabación como Columbia Records, Victor Records, disco Record Odeon—después Disco Nacional entre otras. Este corto recorrido a través de la tecnología no estaría completo sin mencionar al personaje principal que le dio vida a esta innovación grabadora y difusiva, “el musico.” Uno de los primeros músicos que se hizo muy popular en este medio fue Vicente Greco. Trabajó con Columbia Records y estuvo en su catálogo de tangos y de donde por primera vez se usó el término “repertorio criollo.” Para 1904, Carlos Gardel también apareció en el catálogo de Columbia Records.[3]

Carlos Gardel y Razzano también tuvieron etiquetas personalizadas con Disco Nacional. Esto es solo para mencionar algunos de los cientos de músicos destacados que hicieron esta nueva modalidad. Las situaciones políticas y el desarrollo de la Primera Guerra Mundial transformo el destino de las naciones, y este fue el caso de la discografía en Argentina. Los discos se grababan en Buenos Aires, pero las plantas matrices de copiar y prensar estaban en Europa. Habiendo gran demanda de la mercancía y poca oferta, la producción quedó desproporcionada.[4]
Mientras la información sobre las primeras grabaciones de música en Puerto Rico en los 1900 y los 1910 indica algunas brechas en su historia cronológica. Vale la pena mencionar que Puerto Rico llevaba diez años bajo territorio norteamericano. Una grabación cilíndrica de Edison Amberol aparece en 1909, grabada por Gracia López: la primera mujer en grabar música fuera de Puerto Rico, una pieza guaracha. Algunas grabaciones sobrevivieron, pero se encuentran en colecciones privadas no accesible al público.[5]

Según el coleccionista David Morales, solo algunas compañías de grabación viajaron a la isla o grabaron materiales de Puerto Rico. En 1910, de la casa Columbia Records, viajaron a San Juan donde hicieron más de cien grabaciones. Pero, se pueden contar con las manos las canciones de música tradicional jíbara. Otra compañía de grabación que visito la isla fue Victor. El catálogo de La Biblioteca Nacional del Congreso en Washington, DC solo cuenta con seis discos de esta compañía grabados en 1917, donde incluyen primordialmente música de cámara.[6]

El cuarto volumen de la serie de libros titulado La música étnica en grabaciones: Una discografía de grabaciones étnicas producida en los Estados Unidos (1990), escrito por Ricardo K. Spottswood, cubre los periodos de 1893 al 1942. Este volumen está dedicado a las culturas españolas, incluyendo las áreas latinoamericanas y caribeñas (Puerto Rico), portuguesas, filipinas, y vascas.[7] En relación a Puerto Rico, el catálogo de Spottswood contiene una diversidad en las grabaciones incluidas: cuatro danzas, coplas, típicas, bailes jibaros, tres canciones, y una guaracha. Es aquí donde se describe el “seis chorreao” como una melodía rápida ejecutada en el cuatro como acompañamiento de décima. Se refería al baile, no a la canción. También, se hace mención de cantantes, grupos y orquestas como Orquesta Cocolía, Orquesta Tizol y Orquesta Andino y Parrilla entre otros.[8] Es importante mencionar que la compañía de grabación Ansonia se especializo en la música de trova campesina.
 
Un enlace transcultural con la tecnología
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Las grabaciones musicales, la radiografía y radioteatro contribuyeron notablemente a crear una era de enlace transcultural, donde el público entusiasmado hacia preferencia de sus trovadores favoritos como Toñin Romero, los hermanos Morales Ramos y German Rosario entre otros. Donde la música folklórica de Puerto Rico y Argentina se expandía a través del mundo y la música de Argentina se hizo popular en la isla. Algunos de estos trovadores mencionado anteriormente, se le atribuye la creación de algunos de los seises inspirado por la música de Argentina. Además, tenemos que mencionar a Mariano Cotto del pueblo de Naranjito, que se le conocía como el “Bate de la espinela” por el uso de “pie forzado” que describe para rimar vocabulario retorico difícil. Muchos le atribuyen el estilo “tanguillos” y “milonga campera.” Grupos de músicos de Puerto Rico habían emigrado a Nueva York para los 1930. El Cuarteto Flores (de Pedro Flores) grabo la canción “Aguinaldo trulla”: una grabación folklórica estilizada. Mas tarde, se conoció como “El nacimiento del jibaro urbano.” Otro favorito fue Chuito el de Cayey, Chuito el de Bayamón, y el grupo Aurora entre otros.[9]

Así también el tango llegó a un periodo de esplendor, con letristas, cantantes y músicos como Omero Manzi, Osvaldo Pugliese Anibal Troillo, y Carlos Gardel, que para muchos fue su favorito. Con la modalidad del “Gardelmania” a través de las ondas radiales, se crearon grupos de fanáticos en la isla de Puerto Rico. La promoción de su llegada estuvo a cargo de la emisora radial WNEL, entre otro de los medios informativos. Lamentablemente, fueron los mismos medios de comunicación que divulgaron al pueblo puertorriqueño la triste noticia de su fallecimiento. El amor a Carlos Gardel y al tango de Argentina creo un sentido de unidad para los amantes de este estilo de música. Para los años 1940, la radio y el radioteatro continuaron siendo escenarios para recibir artistas locales y extranjeros. La música de tango estaba latente en la comunidad puertorriqueña.

Es tanto así que el programa radial de comedia Jíbaros de la radio tuvo una programación especial para recibir la cantante argentina Libertad Lamarque. Para que tengan una idea de la relación familiar entre ambas culturas, Jesús Rivera Pérez fue el responsable de escribir el espacio de comedia costumbrista, donde Libertad Lamarque haría su actuación. Según el libreto, Libertad aseguraba que ella era puertorriqueña y “Manomeco” la llamaba mentirosa. Ella estableció que nació en la isla de Vieques, y que estaba buscando a su hermano para cocinarle mofongo y cuchifritos. En la parodia, ella menciono tantas veces que había nacido en Vieques (lugar que por si ella no conocía) que decidió visitar la isla de Vieques.
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Para sorpresa, en el 1946, fue llamada “hija adoptiva” de la isla por el alcalde Antonio Ávila. Por un breve momento, los radioyentes tuvieron una conexión transcultural con referencias directas a las costumbres cotidiana de la isla, y ella experimento un cambio cultural con el vocablo puertorriqueño. Fue tanto el sentido familiar hacia la isla de Puerto y la isla nena de Vieques, qué a través de su larga carrera, fueron innumerables las visitas que hizo a Puerto Rico.


[1] Héctor Benedetti, “3. Setenta y ocho revoluciones por minuto: El tango empieza a expandirse,” en Nueva historia del tango: De los orígenes al siglo XXI (Buenos Aires: Siglo XXI Editores, 2016), 87-113.

[2] Héctor Benedetti, 87-113.

[3] Héctor Benedetti, 87-113.

[4] Héctor Benedetti, 87-113.

[5] David Morales, “Grabaciones tempranas de música jibara puertorriqueña: 1909-1910.” La Clave (Blog), http://plenama.blogspot.com/2011/06/early-audio-recordings-of-puerto-rican.html?m=1 (acceso el 14 de marzo de 2018).

[6] Biblioteca Nacional del Congreso, “Grabaciones de audio, 1910-1919, Puerto Rico,” https://www.loc.gov/audio/?fa=location%3Apuerto+rico&dates=1910-1919 (acceso el 24 de marzo de 2018).

[7] Ricardo K. Spottswood. La música étnica en grabaciones: La música étnica en grabaciones: Una discografía de grabaciones étnicas producida en los Estados Unidos: 1893-1942—Volumen 4: española, portuguesa, filipina, vasca (Urbana, IL: Imprenta de La Universidad de Illinois, 1990), 1609-2412.

[8] Ricardo K. Spottswood, 1609-2412; David Morales, “Grabaciones tempranas de música jibara puertorriqueña: 1909-1910.” La Clave (Blog), http://plenama.blogspot.com/2011/06/early-audio-recordings-of-puerto-rican.html?m=1 (acceso el 14 de marzo de 2018).

[9]  Proyecto del Cuatro Puertorriqueño, “Trovadores puertorriqueños,” http://www.cuatro-pr.org/es/node/150 (acceso el 8 de abril de 2018).   

English Version:

The creation and expansion of music became possible thanks in part to the global diffusion through new ideas and technological rebirth. This occurred when apparatuses designed for transmitting sound appeared in the everyday life in sequence of about one or two years, bringing with it a better form of technology that the previous one. In 1877, Thomas Edison created the phonograph, which used wax cylinders to record dictation and (later) music. With the implementation of cylinders in Argentina in the 1890s, the production establishments offered distinct selections of lyrical pieces, patriotic songs and music by payadores.[1]    

Emil Berliner created the gramophone in 1888. This invention imposed itself over the phonograph, using flat discs instead of wax cylinders. Already by 1894, recording technology companies had launched discs into production. However, as it occurred in most parts of the world, cylinders and discs coexisted until most of these manufacturing plants became obsolete and disappeared. Additionally, people found it logical for new technology to push out the old. The advantages that a disc had over a wax cylinder stemmed from greater space for reproduction, based on how disc formats would keep evolving over time. Discs could include more seconds or minutes, and later allowed for two recordings: one on each side of the board.[2]  

Record companies began to emerge like Columbia Records, Victor Records, Odeon—later Disco Nacional among others. This brief journey into technology would not be complete without mentioning the person who gave life to recording technology and transmission: “the musician.” One of the first musicians who grew in popularity through this form of media was Vicente Greco. Greco worked for Columbia Records and had a catalog of tangos where, for the first time, he applied the term “repertorio criollo” (“Creole Repertoire”). By 1904, Carlos Gardel also appeared on the music catalog from Columbia Records.[3]

Carlos Gardel and José Razzano also had personalized labels with Disco Nacional. This is solely to mention some of the hundreds of outstanding musicians who used this new technology. Political situations and the development of World War I (1914-1918) transformed the destiny of nations, and these factors affected the discographies in Argentina. Discs were recorded in Buenos Aires, but the manufacturing plants for pressing and reproducing these discs were in Europe. Having great demand for a commodity and short supply, production remained disproportionate.[4] 

Information concerning the first musical recordings in Puerto Rico in the 1900s and 1910s indicates several hiatuses in its chronology. It deserves mentioning that, at that point in time. Puerto Rico spent over ten years as an imperial territory under the United States. One Edison Amberol wax cylinder dates from 1909, recorded by Gracia López: the first female to record music outside of Puerto Rico, a guaracha. Some recordings from this era survive, but these are encountered in private collections not open to the public.[5]

According to the music recording collector David Morales, few record companies travelled to Puerto Rico or recorded music from that island. In 1910, in the case of Columbia Records, that company travelled to San Juan, where they produced more than one hundred recordings. However, one can quickly count the small number of recordings of traditional folk music (musica jíbara). The record company Victor also visited the island. The catalog from the Library of Congress in Washington, DC features only six recordings released by Victor in 1917, which primarily contains chamber music.[6]
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The fourth volume from the book series entitled, Ethnic Music on Records: A Discography of Ethnic Recordings Produced in the United States, 1893-1942, written by Richard K. Spottswood, covers a period of nearly fifty years of audio recordings and preservation. Spottswood dedicates this specific volume to Spanish cultures, including areas from Latin America, the Caribbean (Puerto Rico), Portugal, Philippines, and Basque region of Spain.[7] In relation to Puerto Rico, the catalog from Spottswood consist of a diversity of included recordings: four danzas, coplas, tipiccas, jibaro dances, three songs, and a guaracha. It is here where the “seis chorreao” gets described as a rapid melody performed by the cuatro as accompaniment to a décima. The seis here refers to the dance, not the song and type of music. Also, Spottswood provides in his catalog names of singers, groups and orchestras like Orquesta Cocolía, Orquesta Tizol and Orquesta Andino and Parrilla among others.[8] It deserves brief mention that the Ansona record label specialized in producing trova farm music.  
 
A Transcultural Link with Technology

Musical recordings, radio and radio theater contributed notably to the creation of a transcultural link, where the listening public enthusiastically had preferences for their favorite trovadors like Toñin Romero, the Morales Ramos Brothers and German Rosario among others.Folk music from Puerto Rico and Argentina expanded around the world, and the music from Argentina increased in popularity on the island of Puerto Rico. Some of the trovadores mention previously in this study, have been credited for creating some of the seises inspired by music from Argentina. Additionally, it deserves mention that Mariano Cotto from the town of Naranjito, who is known by many as “The Beat of the Espinela” (el “Bate de la espinela”) for his application of the “forced foot” (“pie forzado”) which is used to partially describe difficult rhyming techniques. Many give credit for the “tanguillo” and “música campera” styles of the seis to Cotto. Groups of Puerto Rican musicians had migrated to New York by the 1930s. The Forles Cuartet (Cuarteto Flores, led by Pedro Flores) recorded the song “Aguinaldo trulla”: a recording of stylized folk music. Later, this process came to be known as “The Birth of the Urban Jibaro” (“El nacimiento del jibaro urbano”). Other favorite musicians included Chuito from Cayey, Chuito from Bayamón and the group Aurora among other musical artists.[9]

The tango also entered into a period of splendor, with lyricists, singers and musicians like Omero Manzi, Osvaldo Pugliese Anibal Troillo, y Carlos Gardel, who proved to be a favorite for many listeners. With the “Gardel Mania” spreading across radio stations, people established fan groups on the island of Puerto Rico. Radio station WNEL, as well as other forms of media, took charge of promoting news about Gardel and his visit to the island in April 1935. Lamentably, the same media divulged the sad news of his death that same year to Puerto Rican audiences. The appreciation for Carlos Gardel and Argentine tango created a sense of unity for people who loved this type of music. In the 1940a, radio and radio theater continued to serve as the format for receiving local and foreign musical artists. Tango music grew latent in the Puerto Rican community.      

This last aspect manifested itself so much that the comedic radio show Jíbaros de la radio (Jíbaros of the Radio) produced am episode with special guest Argentine singer Libertad Lamarque. In order to establish an idea of the relationship between the two cultures (Puerto Rico and Argentina), Jesús Rivera Pérez wrote a folk comedy skit, where Libertad Lamarque participated and performed. According to the script, Libertad claimed that she was Puerto Rican, and “Manomeco” would call her a liar. She established that she was born on the island of Vieques, and she was looking for her brother so could cook mofongo and cuchifritps for him. In the parody, she frequently mentioned that she was from the island of Vieques (a location which she did not really know about at all) that she decided to visit that island.   
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As a surprise, in 1946, Libertad Lamarque was named the “Adopted Daughter” of Vieques by then Mayor Antonio Ávila. For one brief moment, raido listeners experienced a transcultural connection with direct references to the daily customs on the island, and she experimented with a cultural change by applying Puerto Rican speech.  She developed a  great sense of familiarity toward Puerto Rico and the sister island of Vieques , that  during her long  career,  she visited the island of Puerto Rico an innumerable amount of times.



[1] Héctor Benedetti, “3. Setenta y ocho revoluciones por minuto: El tango empieza a expandirse,” en Nueva historia del tango: De los orígenes al siglo XXI (Buenos Aires: Siglo XXI Editores, 2016), 87-113.

[2] Héctor Benedetti, 87-113.

[3] Héctor Benedetti, 87-113.

[4] Héctor Benedetti, 87-113.

[5] David Morales, “Early Audio-Recordings of Puerto Rican Jibaro Music: 1909-1910.” La Clave (Blog), http://plenama.blogspot.com/2011/06/early-audio-recordings-of-puerto-rican.html?m=1 (accessed March 14, 2018).

[6] Library of Congress, “Audio Recordings, 1910-1919, Puerto Rico,” https://www.loc.gov/audio/?fa=location%3Apuerto+rico&dates=1910-1919 (accessed March 24, 2018).

[7] Richard K. Spottswood, Ethnic Music on Records: A Discography of Ethnic Rcordings Produce in the United States: 1893-1942—Volume 4: Spanish, Portuguese, Filipino, Basque (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1990), 1609-2412.

[8] Ricardo K. Spottswood, 1609-2412; “Early Audio-Recordings of Puerto Rican Jibaro Music: 1909-1910.” La Clave (Blog), http://plenama.blogspot.com/2011/06/early-audio-recordings-of-puerto-rican.html?m=1 (accessed March 14, 2018). http://plenama.blogspot.com/2011/06/early-audio-recordings-of-puerto-rican.html?m=1 (acceso el 14 de marzo de 2018).

[9]  Proyecto del Cuatro Puertorriqueño, “Trovadores puertorriqueños,” http://www.cuatro-pr.org/es/node/150 (accessed April 8, 2018).